Arctic Geopolitics • Sovereignty • UNCLOS
01 — Introduction
The Arctic Ocean is no longer the frozen, inaccessible frontier it was for most of modern history. Accelerating ice melt is opening shipping routes that were once impassable, exposing seabed resources previously locked under permanent ice, and transforming a region once governed by geography into one governed by competing strategic interests.
The U.S. Geological Survey has estimated that the Arctic holds approximately 30 percent of the world's undiscovered natural gas and 13 percent of its undiscovered oil. As these resources become more accessible, the question of who controls the Arctic seabed has moved from an academic exercise in geology to a central issue of 21st-century geopolitics.
At the heart of this competition lies the Lomonosov Ridge—an underwater mountain chain stretching approximately 1,800 kilometres from the continental shelves of Canada and Greenland, across the North Pole, to the Russian continental shelf. Three nations—Canada, Russia, and the Kingdom of Denmark (via Greenland)—each claim this ridge as a natural extension of their own landmass.
The legal framework governing these claims is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), specifically Article 76, which allows coastal states to extend their continental shelf beyond the standard 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone if they can demonstrate the seabed is a natural geological prolongation of their landmass. Claims are evaluated by the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS).
02 — Canada's Arctic Sovereignty
Canada made a partial submission to the CLCS regarding its Arctic Ocean continental shelf in May 2019, followed by an expanded addendum in December 2022. This addendum extended Canada's claim along the full length of the Central Arctic Plateau, including the Lomonosov Ridge, the Alpha Ridge, and the Mendeleev Rise—an area that could encompass approximately 1 million square kilometres of additional seabed.
Canadian scientists have collected extensive geological and bathymetric data through expeditions spanning more than a decade. Between 2025 and 2027, Canada plans additional expeditions to further validate its claim. The scientific case rests on demonstrating that these submarine features are natural prolongations of the Canadian Arctic archipelago, specifically Ellesmere Island.
Canada's military presence in the Arctic is anchored by Joint Task Force North (JTFN), headquartered in Yellowknife. Approximately 5,640 Canadian Rangers maintain a presence in 205 remote and isolated communities, including over 1,500 Rangers in 60 Arctic communities. The Rangers conduct sovereignty patrols, search and rescue, and community support operations.
In March 2025, Prime Minister Carney announced $420 million in new funding to boost the Canadian Armed Forces' presence in the Arctic. Budget 2025 included an $81.1 billion multi-year investment in national defence, with specific allocations for NORAD modernization and Arctic infrastructure.
The government has also allocated $2.672 billion over twenty years for Northern Operational Support Hubs—multi-use infrastructure facilities designed to enable year-round military operations while also serving the needs of territorial governments, Indigenous peoples, and northern communities.
Canada's Arctic sovereignty is inseparable from the rights and governance structures of Indigenous peoples, particularly the Inuit who have inhabited the region for millennia. Inuit Nunangat—the Inuit homeland—encompasses four regions: Nunatsiavut (Labrador), Nunavik (northern Quebec), the territory of Nunavut, and the Inuvialuit Settlement Region (Northwest Territories).
Policy experts increasingly emphasize that strengthening Arctic sovereignty requires genuine partnership with Inuit organizations on matters from resource development to search and rescue infrastructure, and that any credible Arctic strategy must be grounded in community-level engagement and self-determination.
03 — The Lomonosov Ridge
The Lomonosov Ridge is an undersea mountain range rising up to 3,700 metres from the Arctic Ocean floor. It runs from the continental shelf north of Ellesmere Island and Greenland, across the central Arctic basin directly through the North Pole, to the continental margin of Siberia. Its geological character—specifically whether it is continental or oceanic crust, and to which landmass it is most closely connected—determines which nation can claim sovereign rights over the seabed resources it contains.
| Nation | Submission | Key Argument | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Canada | Partial 2019; expanded Dec 2022 covering ~1M km² | Lomonosov & Alpha Ridges are natural prolongations of the Canadian Arctic archipelago (Ellesmere Island) | Under review; validation expeditions 2025–2027 |
| Denmark / Greenland | December 2014; ~895,000 km² | Ridge is geologically connected to the continental margin of northern Greenland via the Lincoln Shelf | Under review |
| Russia | Original 2001; revised 2015; expanded 2021 | Lomonosov Ridge and Mendeleev Rise are extensions of the Siberian continental margin | CLCS issued largely favourable recommendations Feb 2023; overlapping areas with Canada & Denmark remain unresolved |
04 — U.S. & Greenland
The United States has maintained a military presence in Greenland since World War II. Pituffik Space Base—formerly Thule Air Base, renamed in 2023—is the northernmost U.S. military installation and a critical node in North America's missile early warning and space surveillance network.
Greenland is also strategically positioned along the GIUK Gap (Greenland–Iceland–United Kingdom), a Cold War-era anti-submarine chokepoint that remains important for monitoring naval movements between the Arctic and the North Atlantic.
In 2019, President Trump publicly expressed interest in purchasing Greenland. Following his return to office in January 2025, the administration reiterated its strategic interest. Vice President Vance visited Pituffik Space Base in March 2025. Denmark, in response, announced significant new defence packages for Greenland in 2025, including billions for increased surveillance in Greenlandic waters.
One dimension of U.S. interest in Greenland that receives less public attention is the continental shelf. Denmark's 2014 CLCS submission claims the entirety of the Lomonosov Ridge as a geological extension of Greenland's continental shelf. If the United States were to acquire or otherwise gain sovereign authority over Greenland, it could potentially inherit or leverage this existing CLCS submission.
This is significant because the United States is not a party to UNCLOS—the U.S. Senate has never ratified it—which limits its ability to file continental shelf claims through the CLCS process. Greenland would represent the sole means by which the U.S. could stake a claim to the resources beneath the central Arctic Ocean.
05 — Author's Viewpoint
Increase investment in roads, deep-water ports, fibre optic connectivity, and airfield capacity in Canada's North. Sovereignty is exercised through presence, and presence requires infrastructure.
Continue and expand the geological and bathymetric research programs that support Canada's UNCLOS submission. The 2025–2027 validation expeditions are essential and must not be deferred.
Canada needs more heavy icebreakers capable of year-round Arctic operations. The ability to physically access the claimed seabed areas is fundamental to asserting sovereignty.
Deepen cooperation with Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and regional Inuit organizations. Arctic sovereignty is strongest when it rests on the rights, knowledge, and participation of the people who call the Arctic home.
Complete the committed NORAD modernization program, including the Arctic Over-the-Horizon Radar and Northern Operational Support Hubs, on schedule and on budget.
Maintain active diplomatic engagement with Denmark/Greenland and the United States on Arctic governance, including the Northwest Passage, continental shelf boundaries, and shared NORAD responsibilities.
06 — Citizen Action
The following letter is offered for Canadians who wish to write to their Member of Parliament about Arctic sovereignty. It is written from a citizen's perspective and may be freely copied, adapted, and sent. You can find your MP at ourcommons.ca.
[Your Name] [Your Address] [City, Province, Postal Code] [Date] [MP's Name] [MP's Constituency Office Address] [MP's City, Province, Postal Code] Dear [Honourable Member's Name], I am writing to you as your constituent in the riding of [Your Riding Name] to express my concern about Canada's Arctic sovereignty and the security of our northern frontier. As you may be aware, Canada, Russia, and the Kingdom of Denmark have all filed overlapping claims to the Lomonosov Ridge — an undersea mountain chain that stretches across the Arctic Ocean beneath the North Pole. The United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) issued largely favourable recommendations for Russia's claim in 2023, while Canada's submission is still under review. The strategic and economic stakes of this process are immense, potentially encompassing over one million square kilometres of Arctic seabed and its resources. I am also concerned about the geopolitical implications of growing U.S. interest in Greenland. Denmark's CLCS submission, filed on behalf of Greenland, claims the entirety of the Lomonosov Ridge. Any change in Greenland's sovereign status could fundamentally alter the balance of Arctic claims and introduce a new claimant with interests that may not align with Canada's. I respectfully urge you and the Government of Canada to: 1. Ensure that the planned 2025-2027 Arctic validation expeditions proceed on schedule to strengthen Canada's scientific case before the CLCS. 2. Accelerate investment in Arctic infrastructure, including icebreakers, deep-water ports, and communications connectivity. 3. Complete the committed NORAD modernization program, including the Arctic Over-the-Horizon Radar system. 4. Deepen partnership with Inuit communities and organizations in all aspects of Arctic governance and defence planning. 5. Maintain active diplomatic engagement with Denmark, Greenland, and the United States on continental shelf boundaries and Arctic security cooperation. Canada's Arctic is not a peripheral concern — it is the frontier on which our sovereignty, our resources, and our future strategic position depend. I urge you to ensure it receives the attention and investment it requires. Thank you for your time and service. Respectfully, [Your Full Name] [Your Address] [Your City, Province, Postal Code]
07 — Sources
The following publicly available sources were consulted in preparing this overview. Readers are encouraged to review the original materials for full context.
Also on this site: Read the full Northwest Passage analysis →